Bush Browns of Singapore : Part 1

Bush Browns of Singapore : Part 1

Featuring the Mycalesis species of Singapore

A female Dingy Bush Brown (Mycalesis perseus cepheus) perches on a moss-covered tree root

The genus Mycalesis, collectively known by their English Common Name of "Bush Browns" is represented by six species in Singapore. The majority of the species are moderately common except for one which is mainly found in forested areas of the nature reserves. In this two-part blog post, we take a look at these Bush Browns that can be found in Singapore.

A Malayan Bush Brown (Mycalesis fusca fusca) perches on a leaf

The Bush Browns are members of the sub-family Satyrinae, usually referred to as "Browns and Arguses" Predominantly brown in colour, all the species of the Bush Browns are adorned with submarginal ocelli (eyespots) on the underside of both the fore and hindwings. As they belong to the family Nymphalidae, their forelegs are under-developed, and all the species stand on the mid- and hindlegs only.

A Purple Bush Brown (Mycalesis orseis nautilus) perches on a leaf

They typically fly in grassy habitats (of which several species' caterpillars feed on as host plants), and fly low amongst the grasses and shrubbery. Their flight is generally weak but they are alert and skittish, and are often quite challenging to photograph. The Bush Browns typically rest with their wings folded upright, although some of the species have been observed to open their wings to sunbathe at certain hours of the day.

A Malayan Bush Brown (Mycalesis fusca fusca) perches on a fern

This weekend's article introduces the three more distinct species that are easier to identify in the field. In next week's article, we will take a look at the more cryptic lookalikes that will require a bit more scrutiny to correctly identify them.

1. The Malayan Bush Brown (Mycalesis fusca fusca)

A Malayan Bush Brown feeding on the ripened fruit of the Singapore Rhododendron

An uncommon shot of the upperside of the Malayan Bush Brown

The Malayan Bush Brown is the most distinctive of the six species currently found in Singapore. It is usually found in forested areas and along the fringes of the nature reserves flying amongst low bushes and grasses, particularly where its caterpillar host plant, Scleria bancana grows.

The Malayan Bush Brown is the only orangey-brown species that occurs in Singapore. It has a pair of reddish-brown longitudinal stripes on both wings. The orange ringed sub-marginal ocelli are distinctive and the Malayan Bush Brown cannot be confused with any of the other species found in Singapore. The upperside is brown with obscure ocelli.

2. The Purple Bush Brown (Mycalesis orseis nautilus)

A Purple Bush Brown (Mycalesis orseis nautilus) with its full set of yellow-ringed ocelli on both wings

The Purple Bush Brown is the rarest of all the Bush Brown species in Singapore. It is a predominantly forest species and is rarely found outside the sanctuary of the shaded nature reserves. Its caterpillar host plant is currently unknown, but is likely to be one of the grasses. It is usually found singly and flies low amongst grassy undergrowth in shaded habitats.

The yellow-ringed submarginal ocelli on the underside of the fore- and hindwings are rather uniform in size and the majority of the ocelli are touching the adjacent ocelli. The broad white post-discal band that stretches across both wings is faintly violet-washed in a side light.

3. The Dingy Bush Brown (Mycalesis perseus cepheus)

The Dingy Bush Brown is easily distinguished from the other lookalike species in the genus in that the ocellus in space 2 of the hindwing is moved inwards and out of line with the other ocelli adjacent to it. The species also usually has a full set of four ocelli on the underside of the forewing. The caterpillar of this species has been bred on the common "Cow Grass" (Axonopus compressus) and most certainly some other species of grasses.

A courting pair of Dingy Bush Brown.  Male - Left, Female - Right

The species is found amongst grassy areas around the fringes of the nature reserves and buffer parks. The males are generally darker brown than the females. The species has a widespread distribution across Singapore, but cannot be considered common. In localised areas, it can regularly be spotted flying around, and sometimes several individuals can be seen together.

Text by Khew SK : Photos by Khew SK and Tan BJ

Aberrations in Butterflies

Aberrations in Butterflies
Variations and abnormalities in butterflies

About 10 years ago, an aberration of the Common Rose which has missing hindwing white patches of the normal species appeared in Singapore.  Whilst the status of this variation/form/aberration was unknown, several generations of this black hindwing Rose continued for some time before mysteriously disappearing again. With several similar individuals appearing for some time, it could be a subspecies or a different species, but its disappearance raises some doubt as to whether this "aberration" was caused by genetic or environmental triggers? *1

In the animal kingdom, abnormalities caused by genetic mutations or disorders give rise to aberrations or mutations that are physically different from the norm. The more well-known disorders like albinism (the lack of pigmentation in humans and animals), dwarfism (severely restricted growth, leading to smaller than usual individuals), Down's Syndrome (intellectual disability and characteristic facial appearance), polymelia (born with additional appendages) and too many others to discuss here, have been well-documented in genetic science.

An aberrant Malay Viscount with suffused white markings on the forewings

Aberrations in the butterfly world are not rare as thought. The number of photographs of aberrant butterflies that can be found on the Internet, ranging from minor to extreme aberrations in wing patterns and shapes, is evidence that aberrations are relatively regularly encountered in the field. An aberration is a variation in the wing pattern of a butterfly species which is different in some way to the normal pattern. This can occur as a genetic or environmentally produced/induced variation of the usual form of the species. Some aberrant forms although rare, recur on a fairly regular basis and have been documented as new "forms" of a butterfly species.


An aberration of the Branded Imperial where the dorsal side of the hindwing appears to be orange.  In normally-coloured individuals, the dorsal side of the hindwing is black.

Butterfly aberrations may occur for a variety of reasons - for example, extreme temperature changes especially while the butterfly is developing during the pupal (chrysalis) stage may cause aberrations to occur. Very cold conditions can produce very dark forms of some species while heat shock may cause dramatic changes in wing pattern. Research that subject pupae to cold shock have yielded a wide variety of aberrant patterns and colours in butterflies' wings. In some extreme research, chemical injections into caterpillars and pupae to catalyse change in the butterflies' wing patterns have also been carried out in controlled environments.


An extreme aberration of a Common Bluebottle where almost all the blue pigment is missing from the wings

This article discusses and showcases examples of aberrant butterflies that have been observed in the field, that appear different from normal individuals of the species. Amongst the Papilionidae, there have been cases of minor variations observed. However, one such case stands out as a striking example of an extreme aberration. In the case of the Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon luctatius) encountered, the macular band across both wings has merged with the wing borders and the absence of the usual blue colour gives it a totally different appearance from the norm.


An aberrant Common Grass Yellow (left) with no cell spots

Minor aberrations in the spots of the Eurema spp. is quite regularly encountered in Singapore. The absence of the diagnostic cell spots in these Grass Yellows often cause confusion as to what species has been observed. In the example shown above, this aberrant Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe contubernalis) shows a total absence of its cell spots and the lack of other spots and features on the wings make it appear like a different species from the normal butterfly.





The Ypthima species are well-known for having aberrant individuals with additional ocelli on the hindwings

Amongst the Satyrinae, aberrations in the form of additional ocelli has been regularly documented in the Ypthima spp. Examples of the Common Three Ring and Common Five Ring are encountered so regularly with additional ocelli that this phenomenon is taken as "normal" that some individuals sport these extra eyespots.


An aberration of the Malayan Bush Brown with a thick, dark marginal border on both wings

This strange looking aberrant Malayan Bush Brown (Mycalesis fusca fusca) sports a marginal black band on both its wings. A normal individual does not have this dark band, but instead has marginal and submarginal zigzag lines which are completely absent in the aberrant individual.


An aberrant Peacock Pansy with very much reduced or absent hindwing ocelli

This aberrant Peacock Pansy (Junonia almana javana) with a reduced or absent large ocellus on the hindwing makes it appear very different from a normal individual of the same species. The ocelli on the forewing also lack the blue and white highlights of a normal Peacock Pansy.


An aberrant Malay Viscount with abnormal forewing markings that make it look very different from a normal individual of the species

This rare aberrant Malay Viscount (Tanaecia pelea pelea) with the highly diffused forewing markings and reduced cell spots makes it appear like a different species at a glance, when compared with a normal individual of the same species. In this case, the aberrations are limited to the forewings only, as the hindwings appear quite normal with the usual markings of the species.


Various aberrations (left, middle) of the Common Hedge Blue

Aberrations amongst the Lycaenidae appear to be quite regular amongst the Polyommatinae species. The variations in these aberrant individuals can range from a heavily darkened wings with heavier markings to additional spots and diffused striations that make the aberrant individual appear like a totally different species. In the example above, the Common Hedge Blue (Acytolepis puspa lambi) on the extreme left appears very different from the normal example on the right. The middle specimen has conjoined spots on the hindwing.


Aberrant markings of the Malayan (left, middle) which give the individuals a much darker and busier appearance than the normal appearance of the species

The Malayan (Megisba malaya sikkima) depicted above also shows a range of variations from left to right, showing examples of melanism in their wings that suggests a different species, if not carefully scrutinised.


An extreme aberration of the Pointed Line Blue (left) gives it an appearance of a different species

This example of a Pointed Ciliate Blue (Anthene lycaenina miya), an aberration with distinct diffuse white markings on both wings makes it appear very different from a normal individual of the same species.


The large black apical hindwing spot and thicker markings on this aberrant Cycad Blue makes it appear very different from a normal individual of the species

The aberrant Cycad Blue (Chilades pandava pandava) with an extra large black apical spot on the hindwing and the suffused markings on both wings depart quite significantly from the normal butterfly's wing markings.


The large hindwing patch on this aberrant female Quedara monteithii monteithii suggests a different species from what it should look like

And finally, amongst the Hesperiidae (Skippers), aberrations are also known to occur. This bred female of Quedara monteithii monteithii appears to have an extra white patch on its hindwings, whereas a normal female features an all-brown hindwing. The aberrant female appears like a different species.


The complete absence of the arrow-shaped black spots on this aberrant Plain Palm Dart, and the paler orange colour makes it look like a totally different species from the normal individual of this skipper


In the above example of a Plain Palm Dart (Cephrenes acalle niasicus) this aberrant individual lacks any of the normal black arrow-shaped markings of a normal individual of this species. Its paler than usual orange colour for this male plus the strange patch that lacks any wing scales whatsoever gives this aberrant individual a very strange appearance.

Text by Khew SK  : Photos by David Chan, Chng CK, Jerome Chua, Khew SK, Bobby Mun, Simon Sng, Michael Soh, Horace Tan, Tea Yi Kai and Benjamin Yam

*1 : Notes on Pachliopta antiphus (Black Common Rose) - The taxonomic position of antiphus is uncertain. It is regarded as conspecific with Atrophaneura aristolochiae by Tsukada and Nishiyama (1982) and Fujioka et al. and but recognized as a separate species by Page & Treadaway (1995). Papilio aristolochiae subspecies poseidippus Fruhstorfer, 1911 and Papilio aristolochiae subspecies kameiros Fruhstorfer, 1911 are both treated as junior synonyms of Pachliopta antiphus antiphus (Fabricius, 1793) by Page & Treadaway (1995)

Greening of Eco-Link @ BKE

Greening of Eco-Link @ BKE
A Safe Passage for Wildlife


The completed Eco Link spanning across the BKE

Way back in 1986, when the roads engineers of the then Public Works Department designed the Bukit Timah Expressway (or BKE as we acronym-mad Singaporeans know it by), their emphasis was to create an efficient transport link from the Causeway to downtown Singapore. Back then, probably the most efficient route took the expressway right through the Central Catchment, splitting the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve from the rest of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

Elbowed Pierrot (Caleta elna elvira) one of the species observed 

Over the decades that passed, nature observers lamented the fragmentation of the two major high biodiversity nature areas by the BKE. Animals separated by the BKE remained on the two sides and were unable to cross the expressway without the risk of being killed by vehicles. The expressway became an insurmountable barrier.

Lesser Harlequin (Laxita thuisto thuisto)

In 2005, the nature community and the government authorities mooted the idea of a nature or green corridor to re-connect BTNR to the CCNR. After some debate and feasibility studies, the location selected for this biodiversity-bridge was confirmed. It took some time for the realisation of this Eco-Link as there were issues like design, budget, effectiveness and environmental impact of the link to be dealt with.

After further delays, the contract was finally awarded to local contractor Eng Lee Engineering for a contract sum of $11.8M. The Ground Breaking Ceremony for the Eco Link was held on 30 Jul 2011. Today, slightly over two years after work commenced on the Eco Link, I attended the Greening of the completed Eco Link.


Group Photo at the Tree Planting site (via Twitter by ©Debby Ng)

This was basically an event to celebrate the completion of the biodiversity link with a tree-planting ceremony involving the nature community. The event was graced by the Minister of State for National Development, Mr Desmond Lee.

The morning started with an imminent threat of another thunderstorm. The NEA weather radar showed a massive front coming in from Sumatra, and it had begun raining cats and dogs in parts of Singapore. However, the nature community, being a determined bunch, braved the prospects of planting trees in the heavy rain!



When I arrived at the meeting point, I was pleasantly surprised to see that a decent crowd had already made their way to the Dairy Farm area. The dark rain clouds were also beginning to clear up, and it looked like the event was a go!

MOS Desmond Lee hard at work digging the tree hole

The guests were ferried to the Eco Link by coaches, and before long, the group made its way to the top of the Eco Link, led by MOS Desmond Lee. After the traditional group photo, everyone got busy with the tree planting. MOS was even game enough to plant more than one!

As everyone took in the sights around the Eco Link and the speeding vehicles on the BKE below, I could imagine that this "narrow" 50m wide link could indeed be a bridge across which animals can use to move safely between BTNR and CCNR.



I was also told that the Eco Link will not be opened to the general public and will be kept inaccessible so that the animals that may use it will not be disturbed by human presence. There was also concerns that poachers may also use it as a convenient means to capture their prey.

MOS Desmond Lee entertaining the crowd with his handling of the Oriental Whip Snake

Very soon, all the trees were planted, and the group made its way down to the exhibition area and our much-needed refreshments. As if on demand, a couple of snakes showed up and got the attention of the group, including our Guest of Honour. As it was still cool and cloudy, I didn't manage to spot any butterflies in the area.

As for ButterflyCircle's involvement, members had earlier conducted a pre-construction survey in April 2011 in the area. On that single day alone, a total of 54 species of butterflies were recorded. A few rarities like the Lesser Harlequin, Malay Tailed Judy, Indigo Flash were spotted. After the contractors vacate the site and the vegetation recovers on the Eco Link and the surrounding forests, another survey will be conducted to ascertain the butterfly count.

So there you have it, a biodiversity bridge over an expressway, just for nature. There were concerns that the Eco Link would not be effective or is too narrow for animals to want to use it. Will all this effort will be in vain? To me, it is a little effort that may go a long way in trying to bridge the fragmented nature reserves. These reserves are important in the sense that the forest-dependent butterfly species are dependent on the preservation of this habitat. Although the Eco Link itself may not be directly beneficial to butterflies, since they can easily fly across the BKE, the selection of plants and regeneration of habitats across the bridge may help butterfly populations to spread between the two nature reserves.

An exhibition showing the flora and fauna of the Nature Reserves

The Central Catchment and Bukit Timah Nature Reserves are the last remaining remnants of a once awesome primary forest that covered Singapore. These are certainly worth preserving as our natural heritage, and as a home to an amazing diverse spectrum of flora and fauna. The controversy that surrounds the construction of an underground MRT line cutting across the southern part of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve in the MacRitchie Reservoir area stems primarily from the critical need to protect this precious 'green heart' that is home to an awesome biodiversity. That debate is still ongoing, and it will be another story for another time on this blog.

Text & Photos by Khew SK : Group Photo courtesy of Debby Ng

References and Past Articles about the Eco Link

• From WildSingapore : http://wildsingaporenews.blogspot.sg/2010/12/singapore-bukit-timah-eco-bridge-to.html
• From the Biology Refugia : http://biologyrefugia.blogspot.sg/2009/09/ecological-corridor-for-bukit-timah-and.html
• From SGLinks : http://sglinks.com/pages/1202944-eco-link-bke-links-nature-reserves
• From IYB 2010 : http://iyb2010singapore.blogspot.sg/2010/05/bridge-for-biodiversity-eco-link-to.html

List of Butterflies observed during the pre-construction survey on 9 Apr 2011 :

1) Papilio polytes romulus (Common Mormon)
2) Graphium sarpedon luctatius (Common Bluebottle)
3) Chilasa clytia clytia (Common Mime) (caterpillar)
4) Euploea mulciber mulciber (Striped Blue Crow)
5) Leptosia nina malayana (Psyche)
6) Catopsilia pomona pomona (Lemon Emigrant)
7) Eulaceura osteria kumana (Purple Duke)
8) Eurema blanda snelleni (Three-Spot Grass Yellow)
9) Elymnias hypermnestra agina (Common Palmfly)
10) Elymnias panthera panthera (Tawny Palmfly)
11) Mycalesis mineus macromalayana (Dark Brand Bush Brown)
12) Mycalesis perseus cepheus (Dingy Bush Brown)
13) Mycalesis visala phamis (Long Brand Bush Brown)
14) Mycalesis fusca fusca (Malayan Bush Brown)
15) Orsotriaena medus cinerea (Nigger)
16) Ypthima baldus newboldi (Common Five Ring)
17) Ypthima pandocus corticaria (Common Three Ring)
18) Tanaecia iapis puseda (Horsfield's Baron)
19) Tanaecia pelea pelea (Malay Viscount)
20) Lebadea martha parkeri ( The Knight )
21) Moduza procris milonia (Commander)
22) Hypolimnas anomala anomala (Malayan Eggfly)
23) Athyma nefte subrata (Colour Sergeant)
24) Junonia hedonia ida (Chocolate Pansy)
25) Junonia almana javana (Peacock Pansy)
26) Lasippa tiga siaka (Malayan Lascar)
27) Phaedyma columella singa (Short Banded Sailor)
28) Abisara saturata kausambiodes (Malayan Plum Judy)
29) Abisara savitri savitri(Malay Tailed Judy)
30) Laxita thuisto thuisto ( Lesser Harlequin )
31) Logania marmorata damis (Pale Mottle)
32) Acytolepis puspa lambi (Common Hedge Blue)
33) Caleta elna elvira (Elbowed Pierrot)
34) Eooxylides tharis distanti (Branded Imperial)
35) Iraota rochana boswelliana (Scarce Silverstreak)
36) Surendra vivarna amisena (Acacia Blue)
37) Zizina otis lampa (Lesser Grass Blue)
38) Jamides celeno aelianus (Common Caerulean)
39) Prosotas dubiosa lumpura (Tailless Line Blue)
40) Arhopala centaurus nakula (Centaur Oakblue)
41) Arhopala major major
42) Anthene emolus goberus (Ciliate Blue)
43) Zeltus amasa maximinianus (Fluffy Tit)
44) Rapala varuna orseis (Indigo Flash)
45) Rapala pheretima sequeira (Copper Flash)
46) Hypolycaena erylus teatus (Common Tit)
47) Neopithecops zalmora zalmora ( The Quaker)
48) Pelopidas mathias mathias (Small Branded Swift)
49) Tagiades japetus atticus (Common Snow Flat)
50) Tagiades calligana (Malayan Snow Flat)
51) Hasora badra badra (Common Awl)
52) Iambrix salsala salsala (Chestnut Bob)
53) Potanthus omaha Omaha (Lesser Dart)
54) Taractrocera archias quinta (Yellow Grass Dart)