Book Review - Butterflies of Sri Lanka

Book Review - Common Butterflies of Sri Lanka
by Himesh Dilruwan Jayasinghe

A friend from Sri Lanka, Malinga Prabhasara, recently sent me a book that was hot off the press. Titled "Common Butterflies of Sri Lanka" by Himesh Dilruwan Jayasinghe, this 175-page A5 sized book features 100 species of butterflies that are commonly found in Sri Lanka. Sponsored and published by the Ceylon Tea Services PLC the book is a project backed by the Dilmah Conservation (the famous Sri Lankan tea brand known all around the world)

Map of Sri Lanka showing major towns (left) and topographical map (right)

Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country near the south-east of India in South Asia. Sri Lanka is a republic, governed by a presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the commercial capital, and largest city, of Colombo. It is also an important producer of tea, coffee, gemstones, coconuts, rubber, and the native cinnamon, the island contains tropical forests and diverse landscapes with a high amount of biodiversity.




Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace) ; Joker (Biblia ilithyia) ; Ceylon Lacewing (Cethosia nietneri)

Covering a land mass of 65,525 sq km, this island nation has a population of about 21 million residents.  It is a country that is well known for its rich history and culture, having been once a colony of the Portuguese, Dutch and English at different times in the past. Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, although the country is relatively small in size, it has the highest biodiversity density in Asia. A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic.


One of the endemic species of Sri Lanka, the Jewel Four-Ring (Ypthima singala)

There are about 245 species of butterflies in Sri Lanka.  The amazing fact is that there are about 26 species that are endemic to Sri Lanka! Being classified as endemic means a species is unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation, country or other defined zone, or habitat type, and occurs nowhere else in the world.



The Common Butterflies of Sri Lanka is quite logically organised, not unlike many books of this genre.  Starting with the usual foreword, preface and acknowledgements, the book has the requisite basic introduction to butterflies, covering the life history from egg to adult, adult diet, protective mechanisms, mating and so on.  There is a full checklist of the butterflies of Sri Lanka with good information about their distribution.


The useful "how to use this book" pages - featuring the keys and symbols used for each species page

The organisation of each species page contains a lot of information, starting with size - large, medium, small and tiny (with reference sizes), the status of each species based on the IUCN convention and whether it is endemic. The six butterfly families are organised taxonomically into the six known family groups.




Typical species pages featuring the families Papilionidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae

The description on each page is detailed, covering the physical attributes of the butterfly species, their behaviour and distribution. Information on the larval food plants (what we call here as caterpillar host plants) accompanies each species. Each species page features a page-width picture of the butterfly and a smaller inset of either the female or upper/underside of the species.




The Lycaenidae page (bottom) featuring the Monkey Puzzle (Rathinda amor) a pretty hairstreak that is on my hit list!

Each species has its English common name in bold text, followed by the scientific name up to species level only. A nice feature on the page is a small map of Sri Lanka, illustrating the species' distribution on the island - more abundant, less abundant and absent and colour coded for easy reference.


Hesperiidae pages from the book

Personally, I find that the text font used is a bit thin and hard to read. Perhaps the author could have used a bolder text to make the book easier to read (particularly by the more senior members of our community). The pictures for the species are large enough to show their distinguishing features and many are of high quality.  However, the pictures could be adjusted slightly brighter, as there is a general perception of the shots being a tad dark when I flipped through the book.


Crossover between Lycaenidae and Riodinidae pages.  Sri Lanka has only one species of Riodinidae

The six families are featured one after another, without a break or separation between the families. Although the families are colour-coded, it would have been better to at least have a break between the families so that a reader is aware when one family ends and another starts. However, it is acknowledged that this may be impractical, particularly for the Riodinidae, where there is only one known species in Sri Lanka.


Featuring the endemic species of Sri Lanka - these species are found only in Sri Lanka and nowhere else

At the end of the book is a section showcasing the endemic species of Sri Lanka. It is also noteworthy that the acknowledged National Butterfly of Sri Lanka, is the Sri Lankan Birdwing (Troides darsius), an endemic species that can be found nowhere else but in Sri Lanka.


Larval host plants section showing photos of the plants featured in the species pages

The special section on larval host plants is useful as an aid to identify these plants in the field and as additional knowledge for the enthusiast to be aware of which butterfly species' caterpillars uses these plants as their host plant.


Sri Lanka's National Butterfly, the Sri Lankan Birdwing (Troides darsius), an endemic species that is found only in Sri Lanka and nowhere else in the world, a valid claim that no other country can contest!

All in all, I found the book informative and useful. Though it only features less than half of the total number of species found in Sri Lanka, I am sure the book will be useful for beginners and the amateur enthusiast who may encounter these butterflies in the field. My heartiest congratulations to the author for a job well done, and for adding new knowledge and information to our butterfly world!

Book Review by Khew SK : Photos by Malinga Prabhasara and scans of the book courtesy of the author Himesh Jayasinghe.

References : 

• Common Butterflies of Sri Lanka, Himesh Jayasinghe, Ceylon Tea Services PLC, 2015
• A Pocket Guide to the Butterflies of Sri Lanka, H Jayasinghe, C De Alwis and S Rajapaksha, Chamitha de Alwis, 2013

Special thanks to Malinga Prabhasara for taking the extra trouble to send me the two books on Sri Lankan butterflies, and for his photos featured on this blog article

Life History of the Grand Imperial

Life History of the Grand Imperial (Neocheritra amrita amrita)

Butterfly Biodata:
Genus: Neocheritra Distant, 1885
Species: amrita C & R Felder, 1860
Sub-species: amrita C & R Felder, 1860
Wingspan of Adult Butterfly: 36-40mm
Caterpillar Local Host Plant: Dendrotrophe varians.

Physical Description of Adult Butterfly:
On the upperside, the male is dark brown with inner and basal halves of both wings in shining blue. The female is almost entirely brown. Both sexes have whitened tornal areas in the hindwing bearing large black quadrate marginal and submarginal spots. On the underside, both sexes are mainly yellowish orange but white in the lower half of the hindwing. Black post-discal striae are present in the tornal half of the hindwing. In the forewing, the basal part of vein 12 is not black (this is a key characteristic for distinguishing the Grand Imperial from the Great Imperial). In the hindwing, there are whitish tails at the end of veins 1b and 2 with the one at vein 1b much longer (about 2.5x as long as the one at vein 2) and fluffy in appearance.

A sunbathing female Grand Imperial displaying its upperside.

Field Observations of Butterfly Behaviour:
This species is rare in Singapore. The handful of sightings took place mainly in the catchment reserves, as well as the offshore island, Pulau Tekong. The adults have a graceful flight and typically perch with its wings closed upright between flights. In sunny weather, however, they have been observed to sun-bathe with wings fully open. They are sometimes sighted while hanging around a flowering plant for their nectar intake.

Early Stages:  
Only one plant, Dendrotrophe varians, has been recorded as the local larval host for the Grand Imperial. This plant has variable leaf shape. It is rather rare in the catchment reserves with only a very limited number recorded in the past decade. The caterpillar feeds on the young to mature leaves of the host plant, with the early instars mainly skimming the leaf surface while those in the later instars devouring the leaf lamina whole from the edge.

Dendrotrophe varians, the host plant of the Grand Imperial found in the catchment reserve.

Dendrotrophe varians, with an egg of the Grand Imperial on the leaf surface.

A female Grand Imperial ovipositing on the underside of a leaf of the host plant.

The eggs are laid singly on the underside of a leaf of the host plant. Each egg is about 1-1.1mm in diameter, whitish with a subtle yellowish undertone when freshly laid. The surface is covered with numerous moderately large depressions. The tiny and depressed micropylar sits at the pole.

Two views of an egg of the Grand Imperial.

It takes about 4 days for the egg to hatch, with the young caterpillar nibbling away the upper portion of the egg shell to emerge. The newly hatched has a length of about 1.5mm. Its body has a pale yellowish brown ground colour. The pro-thoracic shield and anal plate are pale brown in colour. Each of the segments from the 3rd thoracic segment to the 7th abdominal segment has a dorsal conical protrusion. Whitish setae emanate from these protrusions. The body also features rather long whitish setae along the body rim and a quadrate posterior segment. After hatching, the infant caterpillar proceeds to devour the remnant of the egg shell.

Two views of a newly hatched caterpillar devouring the remnant of its egg shell.

As the caterpillar grows its body turns yellowish with a strong greenish undertone. After about 3 days of growth in the first instar, and reaching a length of about 3.4mm, the caterpillar moults to the next instar. During the dormant stage prior to its moult, the body is whitish with yellowish markings.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, late,, length: 3mm.

Two views of a 1st instar caterpillar, dormant before its moult.

The 2nd instar caterpillar has proportionately shorter dorsal and lateral setae while the dorsal protrusions are longer and more prominent, especially those in the posterior segments. Its prothoracic shield is dark brown to black in colour. The quadrate posterior segment now has two small conical protrusions. The dorsal nectary organ on the 7th abdominal segment is now discernible. The 2nd instar caterpillar grows steadily and reaches a length of about 5.5mm. After about 2.5 to 3 days in this instar, it moults again. The caterpillar is whitish with a pink undertone when lying dormant prior to the moult.

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 3.6mm..

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, later in this stage, length: 4.1mm..

Two views of a 2nd instar caterpillar, late in this stage, dormant prior to its moult, length: 5.5mm.

The 3rd instar caterpillar resembles the 2nd instar caterpillar, but with various features (such as dorsal and posterior conical protrusions, body outline) becoming more pointed or angular. At the anterior segment, two pointed protrusions are now prominently featured. Its body colour is mainly whitish with a pink undertone for the entire instar. Brown stripes can be seen encircling the base of the last 4 conical protrusions. The dorsal nectary organ is also rather large and more prominently featured than in the 2nd instar. The pair of tentacular organs found on the 8th abdominal segment is now easily observed as well. The 3rd instar takes about 2.5-3 days to complete with the body length reaching about 10mmm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, newly moulted, length: 5.3mm.

Two views of a 3rd instar caterpillar, length: 9.4mm.

Two views of a late 3rd instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 9.8mm.

Initially, the 4th instar mostly resembles the 3rd instar caterpillar closely in coloration and most features. Overall, the body is still whitish but with more pale yellowish/brownish shadings, and the anal plate is dark brown. The 4th instar takes about 3 days to complete with the body length reaching about 16-17mm.

Two views of a newly moulted 4th instar caterpillar, length: 10.2mm.

Two views of a 4th instar caterpillar, later in this stage, length: 16mm.

Two views of a late 4th instar caterpillar, dormant prior to its moult, length: 16.2mm.

The 5th instar caterpillar is initially whitish in body colour, but becoming pinky brown to beige brown as growth progresses. By day 3 of this instar, the body base colour is mostly pale to dark brown with whitish coloration restricted to the last 3 to 4 segments. The two anterior protrusions appear to be longer and fused, resembling a snout.

Two views of a newly moulted 5th instar caterpillar, length: 15mm.

Two views of a 5th instar caterpillar, length: 28mm.

Two 5th instar caterpillars of the Grand Imperial sharing a leaf.

After about 4 days of feeding and reaching a length of about 28mm, the caterpillar stops food intake, and its body gradually shortened and body base colour decolorised to a patchwork of brown and white. The caterpillar would wander around in seek of a pupation site which is typically a spot on a stem or branch bearing whitish patches. At this site, the pre-pupatory caterpillar prepares for pupation by spinning a silk pad to which it attaches itself via its anal claspers. After 1.5-2 days as a pre-pupa, pupation takes place. The pupa has one prominent dorsal protuberance and two shorter ones next to it. The pupa is predominantly pale to dark greyish brown with powdery green patches decorating its surface. There are also cryptic markings in pale/dark brown, white and green to add to the concealment effect. Pupal length: 15-16mm.

Two views of an immobile pre-pupa of the Grand Imperial.

Two views of a pupa of the Grand Imperial.

9 days later, the pupa turns rather dark, first in the wing pad and thorax, then progressively in the abdomen. The next day, the pupal stage comes to an end with the emergence of the adult butterfly.

Two views of a mature pupa of a female Grand Imperial.

A newly eclosed female  Grand Imperial waiting for its wings to expand fully near its pupal case.

References:

• [C&P4] The Butterflies of The Malay Peninsula, A.S. Corbet and H.M. Pendlebury, 4th Edition, Malayan Nature Society, 1992.
• Butterflies of Thailand, Pisuth Ek-Amnuay, 2nd Edition, 2012.
• A Field Guide to the Butterflies of Singapore, Khew S.K., Ink On Paper Communications, 2010.

Text by Horace Tan, Photos by Nelson Ong, Chng CK, Simon Sng, Sunny Chir, Khew SK and Horace Tan

Favourite Nectaring Plants #6

Butterflies' Favourite Nectaring Plants
The Javanese Ixora (Ixora javanica)

This 6th instalment of our Butterflies' Favourite Nectaring Plants series features a species of the family Rubiaceae, Ixora javanica. The genus Ixora comprises a number of species, which are generally bushy plants with bright red, pink, orange, yellow and white flowers. These plants are typically used as accent plants (particularly the red flowered cultivar) in landscapes in our parks and gardens.

The attractive bunches of red flowers make the Ixora a good choice for garden border hedges and as standalone feature bushes. In Singapore, the red and yellow varieties are more often cultivated in our urban streetscape and gardens. Other species like Ixora coccinea, Ixora siamensis (dwarf cultivar), Ixora chinensis and others are also cultivated, often together with Ixora javanica in our urban greenery, often making the identification of the various Ixora spp. rather confusing.

Plant Biodata :
Family : Rubiaceae
Genus : Ixora
Species : javanica
Synonyms : I. amara, I. amoena, I. cyathosperma
Country/Region of Origin : Tropical Southeast Asia
English Common Names : Javanese Ixora, Jungle Geranium, Jungle Flame
Other Local Names : Todong Periuk, Pechah Periuk, Bunga Siantan, Jejarum/Jarum-Jarum, 爪哇龍船花

The Javanese Ixora is a native plant in Southeast Asian countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. In Singapore, most of the Javanese Ixora bushes are cultivated and the plant appears in many parks and gardens as part of the horticultural palette of the garden designers. One species of the genus, Ixora congesta occurs naturally in the forests and is common on Pulau Ubin.

The short petiole (the stalk attaching the leaf blade to the stem) is a distinguishing feature

An evergreen shrub that grows up to 3 m tall, the Javanese Ixora features light green, elliptic-oblong leaves ranging from 10-25cm long. The leaves can sometimes be corrugated, but has a distinct short petiole, which is one of the diagnostic features to distinguish this Ixora from closely related ones. The leaves are paired and tend to droop downwards.

Inflorescence and flowers of the red and yellow cultivars of Ixora javanica

The inflorescence has quite a long peduncle, and the small tubular flowers have 4 obovate lobes arranged in a cross-like pattern, with the lobes bluntly pointed. Freshly opened flowers are red-orange, slowly turning red as they mature. Flowers are arranged in large, dense clusters that are about 7.6 cm wide.

Berry-like fruits of Ixora javanica

After pollination, the flowers die off, leaving the remaining stems on the clusters. Green, berry-like fruits appear, growing up to about 8-10mm in diameter and turning purple-black as they mature. The Ixora bushes also tend to get woody as the bushes grow older and may need to be pruned regularly to maintain its lush form and ability to flower regularly.

I recall that in my younger days, we pulled out the stamen from each flower, and usually attached to the ends of the stamens would be a drop of nectar which we savoured. The distinct sweetness of the flower's nectar is likely to be what attracts myriad insects to the flowers to feed.

Ixora javanica bushes at a Reservoir Park

In Singapore, many parks, gardens, park connectors, natureways and urban landscapes which have been cultivated to enhance our biodiversity features the Javanese Ixora. Favourite butterfly-photography (and birds too!) locations that feature this plant are Pulau Ubin's Butterfly Hill, Jurong Eco Gardens, Gardens By the Bay, Upper Seletar Reservoir Park and Upper Peirce Reservoir Park, to name a few.

Swallowtails galore!  Papilionidae species feeding on both the red and yellow flowers of Ixora javanica

Given the structure of the flower and the relative concentration of nectar, the flowers of the Javanese Ixora are attractive to both large and small butterflies. Amongst the larger Papilionidae that feed on the flowers are the Common Birdwing, Great Mormon, Common Mormon, Banded Swallowtail and Common Mime. As is typical with the Papilinidae, the butterflies are usually in flight, with their forewings flapping rapidly, whilst their hindwings are kept still and then probing their proboscis into the flower in search of nectar.

Pieridae species feeding on red and yellow flowers of Ixora javanica

Amongst the other families, we have come across Pieridae, various other subfamilies of the Nymphalidae, all medium or fairly large butterflies, feeding on the flowers of the Ixora javanica. The typical behaviour of these butterflies when feeding on Ixora is that they move from flower to flower whilst perched on the flower, constantly probing with their proboscis as they feed on the nectar from each flower.

Interestingly, the Danainae are not often photographed feeding on Ixora. Perhaps the Crows and Tigers prefer other flowering plants to the Ixoras? It would be an interesting subject to research how plants attract butterflies to their flowers, and why certain families or sub-families of butterflies are not attracted to certain flowers.

Lycaenidae species feeding on Ixora javanica.  Note their fine proboscis probing into the flower

Many species of the Lycaenidae have also been recorded on Ixora javanica flowers - one of which is exceedingly rare in Singapore - the Golden Royal (Pseudotajuria donatana donatana). A female was recorded feeding on Ixora some time in 2005. It was almost 10 years later in 2013, that another individual was photographed in the field.

Hesperiidae species on flowers of Ixora javanica

The Skippers also feed on the flowers of the Ixora javanica. It is interesting to observe as the species like the Hoary Palmer and Conjoined Swift, using their extra long proboscis to probe deep into the Ixora flower, almost like anglers "fly-fishing" with their long lines!

So there you have it, our sixth butterfly nectaring plant, the Javanese Ixora (Ixora javanica) and some examples of the butterflies that visit it to feed. So when you are out in our parks and gardens, take a closer look whenever you encounter the Javanese Ixora bushes, and you may be delighted by the variety of butterflies that are attracted to the flowers.

Text by Khew SK : Photos by Sunny Chir, Khew SK, Koh CH,  Loke PF, Horace Tan, Tan CP and Anthony Wong

References : 

The Concise Flora of Singapore : Hsuan Keng Singapore University Press, 1990
1001 Garden Plants in Singapore : Boo Chih Min, Kartini Omar-Hor and Ou-Yang Chow Lin, National Parks Board, 2nd Edition 2007
Plants in Tropical Cities : Boo Chih Min, Sharon Chew and Jean Yong, 2014
A Guide to the WildFlowers of Singapore : Foo Tok Shiew, Singapore Science Centre, 1985

Other Favourite Nectaring Plants in this series :

#1 : Snakeweed (Stachytarpheta indica)
#2 : Stringbush (Cordia cylindristachya)
#3 : Prickly Lantana (Lantana camara)
#4 : Bandicoot Berry (Leea indica)
#5 : Red Tree Shrub (Leea rubra)